2 WordNet
Grammatica
# 1 : for reviewing:
The Noun
Recognize a noun when you see one.
George! Jupiter! Ice cream! Courage! Books! Bottles! Godzilla! All of these words are nouns, words that identify the whos, wheres, and whats in language.Nouns name people, places, and things. Read the sentence that follows:
George and Godzilla walked to Papa John's to order a large pepperoni pizza.George is a person. Papa John's is a place. Pizza is a thing. Godzilla likes to think he's a person, is as big as a place, but qualifies as another thing.
Understand the functions that nouns provide in sentences.
Nouns can function as subjects, objects, and complements. Check out these examples:
Godzilla ordered a large pepperoni pizza and ate the pie in a single bite.
Godzilla = the subject for the verbs ordered and ate.
George offered Godzilla a ten-dollar loan to buy a second pizza.
Godzilla = the indirect object of offered; loan = the direct object of offered.
While eating a piece of pizza, George dripped tomato sauce onto his shirt.
Shirt = the object of the preposition onto.
In Godzilla's opinion, George is a big slob.
Slob = subject complement of the linking verb is.
Related Terms (for your personal use)
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abstract noun | collective noun | common noun | concrete noun | count noun | direct object | indirect object | linking verb | noncount noun | object of the preposition | proper noun | subject | subject complement | verb |
#2: copy the grey highlighted area
the noun functioning as
subject or nominative case
the following is an indepth overview on the 'subject or nominative'
The Subject
Know how to identify a subject.
In a sentence, every verb must have a subject. If the verb expresses action--like sneeze, jump, bark, or study--the subject is who or what does the verb. Take a look at the examples below:
During his biology lab, Tommy danced on the table.
Danced is an action verb. Tommy is who did the dancing. Look at the next example:
The speeding Toyota crashed into a telephone pole.
Crashed is the action verb. The Toyota is what did the crashing.
Not all verbs are action verbs.
Some verbs are linking. These are verbs like am, is, are, was, were, seem, and become, among others. Linking verbs connect the subject to something that is said about the subject.
Take a look at this example:
Ron's bathroom is a disaster.
Bathroom is the subject. Is connects the subject to something that is said about it, that the bathroom is a disaster. Try another example:
The bathroom tiles are fuzzy with mold.
The word tiles is the subject. Are connects tiles to something said about them, that they are fuzzy with mold.
Generally, but not always, the subject of a linking verb will come before the linking verb.
Know the difference between a complete subject and a simple subject.
The complete subject is the who or what that is doing the verb plus all of the modifiers (descriptive words) that go with it. Read the sentence below:
The huge, hairy, hungry, green Martian grabbed a student from the back row.
Who did the grabbing? The Martian, of course. But this Martian wasn't petite, bald, satisfied and blue. No, this one was huge, hairy, hungry, and green. The complete subject, then, is the huge, hairy, hungry, green Martian.
The simple subject, on the other hand, is the who or what that is doing the verb without any of the provided description. Take a look at this example:
The bright copper coin sparkled on the sidewalk.
What did the sparkling? Obviously, the bright copper coin. The, bright and copper, however, are just description that distinguishes this coin from one that is, let's say, tarnished and silver. The simple subject is only the word coin.
Remember that the subject is never part of a prepositional phrase.
The subject of a verb will never be part of a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition (in, on, at, between, among, etc.) and ends with a noun. Look at these examples of prepositional phrases:
in the dirty bathtub
on the bumpy road
at home
between good friends
among the empty pizza boxes
Sometimes a prepositional phrase appears to be either the subject itself or part of the subject. Read the example that follows:
Neither of these boys wants to try a piece of pineapple pizza.
In this sentence, the boys seem to be the ones who do not want to try the pizza, but because they are part of a prepositional phrase, of these boys, they are not the subject. Neither is the actual subject. Take a look at another example:
My dog, along with her seven puppies, has chewed all of the stuffing out of my sofa cushions.
Here, both my dog and her seven puppies are chewing on the sofa, but because the puppies are part of the prepositional phrase along with her seven puppies, the only word that counts as the subject is dog.
Remember this additional point:
Generally, but not always, the subject comes before the verb, as in all of the examples above. There are, however, exceptions, like this one:
In a small house adjacent to my backyard lives a family with ten noisy children.
Lives is the action verb in this sentence, but it is not the house or the backyard that is doing the living. Instead, it is the family with ten noisy children. Family, then, is the subject of this sentence, even though it comes after the verb. Take a look at another example:
Around the peach trees are several buzzing bumblebees.
Are is the linking verb is this sentence. The words peach trees, however, are not the subject because they are within the prepositional phrase around the peach trees. The subject in this sentence, bumblebees, follows the verb rather than coming before it.
The emperor Titus opened the Coliseum in AD 80 with 100 days of games in which 9,000 animals died. The crowds came to the games to see fighting and blood as well as the color and pageantry of public celebrations.
The proper name of the Coliseum is the Flavian Amphitheatre. Nero never turned "thumbs down" on anyone in the Colosseum. Though he planned its construction--as part of a never-completed larger and more lavish palace complex--he died before it was opened in 80 A.D.
The word Coliseum comes from a "colossal" statue of Nero that once stood near the stadium.
The Coliseum had a canvas roof - the velarium - raised and lowered by a specially trained team of Roman sailors known for their skill with rigging ships. The canvas "big top" had a large hole in the center to admit more light.
The Coliseum¹s spectator capacity was about 50,000 persons-- dignitaries, their guests, their slaves, a select number of common people, and "foreigners"--people who did not hold Roman citizenship. Commoners, slaves and foreigners were seated right under the canvas roof, where it was hottest.
The word "arena" is Latin for sand. Sand was spread across the amphitheater fighting floor to soak up blood.
Deceased gladiators and animals killed in exhibitions at the Coliseum had their own exit. It was called the Libitinarian Gate-- after Libitina, the goddess of funerals.
The Hippodrome was an ancient Roman design to hold horse and chariot racing. The most famous one-The Circus Maximus- was 600 meters long and 200 meters wide. It could hold up to 250,000 people (1/4 the population of Rome).
A circus designates a circle or course for chariot racing. Aside from the Circus Maximus, the largest and oldest, there were three other circuses in Rome: the Circus Flaminius (221 BC), which actually was not a circus at all but a public square; the Circus Gaii et Neronis (circa AD 40), where many of the Christian martyrdoms occurred and on which St. Peter's basilica was built (the obelisk brought to Rome by Caligula to adorn its spina still stands in the square); and the Circus Maxentius (AD 309), built as part of his villa on the Via Appia and the best preserved.
In this view, the starting gates are in the foreground, with the royal box dominating the viewing stands on the left. The palace overlooks the Circus from the Palatine Hill.
The Circus Maximus was another public entertainment center, and was just a single, specific facility in Rome. The Maximus was used mostly for chariot racing. It could seat 250,000 people! There were other circuses in ancient Rome.
This oval basin, nearly 600 meters long, is almost entirely filled in with dirt. It was once a race track. It was made in the time of the Etruscan kings (presumably Tarquinio Prisco). Augustus adorned the brick structure with an imperial stage, which was rebuilt by Trajan, enlarged by Caracalla and restored by Constantine. During the reign of Constantine, the Circus could hold more than 200,000 spectators. Today only the outline remains (the area it occupied is now a public garden).
The most popular events were the chariot races held in the Circus Maximus, an arena that held up to 300,000 spectators. Competing teams with brightly decorated horses attracted fierce loyalty, and up to a dozen four-horse chariots crowded together through the dangerous turns, lap after lap. Successful charioteers became so wealthy that even emperors envied their riches.
The largest of the Roman hippodromes and one of the largest sports arenas ever built. A U-shaped structure with seats on three sides and a low wall running down the middle of the arena around which the chariots raced, it was rebuilt in the time of Julius Caesar (1st century BC) to seat an estimated 150,000 spectators. Enlarged by later emperors, it reached a maximum size under Constantine (4th century AD) of about 2,000 by 600 feet (610 by 190 meters), with a seating capacity of possibly 250,000, greater than that of any subsequent stadium. Nothing but the site, between the Palatine and Aventine hills, remains today.
| Pictorial Tour of Rome |
If anyone wishes to contribute any pictures of their own, please get in touch.
Family
Structure
At the
head of Roman family life was the Paterfamilias: the oldest living male
in a family, who was absolute ruler of the household. By Roman law, a father
wielded absolute control over his children. Those who displeased him could be
disowned, sold into slavery, or even killed. He would perform certain religious
rites on behalf of his family, and oversee the family business and property.
Only the paterfamilias could own property in a family. His sons regardless
of age would receive an allowance (peliculum) to use in maintaining
their own households. The continuance of family names was extremely important,
and families without sons could adopt one, often a nephew, so the family line
would not die out.
Judith Hallett: Rome is definitely a patriarchal society. The operative political and legal unit was the family headed by the eldest man. But because the family was such an important unit and because family membership by blood meant so much, women were extraordinarily important within the Roman family. They could not vote. They could not hold office. They obviously were not involved in the same type of military exploits as men; but within the family circle, they were not only expected to transmit, but also to display the same qualities that would secure public prominence for their men folk.Fathers also had the right to decide whether to keep or expose their newborn babies. The midwife placed babies on the ground, and only when the paterfamilias picked it up was the baby formally accepted into the family. Exposure the deliberate abandonment of an infant to the elements was practiced on obviously deformed infants, or when the father felt the family could not support another child. While much has been made of this seemingly cruel Roman custom, it was assumed that these babies did not die, but were picked up and taken as slaves.
Richard Saller: With child exposure the first thing to do is make a distinction between exposure and infanticide. Romans who had babies that they couldn't support and didn't want to raise would have set them out in an appointed place where passersby could pick them up if they wanted to. Why did they do it? Well because they had no predictable form of birth control. Having the right size family has been a problem through the ages... For poor families the problem was matching their resources to the size of their family. And so the exposure of a newborn in some cases was a kind of calculated form of love for the rest of the family.
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A Roman mother with her child. |
Housing
One of the great achievements of Augustus was to transform
Rome into a truly imperial city, with the majestic marble buildings we associate
with Ancient Rome today. However, despite the grandeur of political and historic
Rome, the lives of its citizens were sometimes less than ideal.
Ronald
Mellor: I think the best way of getting a sense of [ancient] Rome today
would probably be to go to a third world city, to go to Cairo, to go to New
Delhi. To go to a city that was noisy, that was filled with pack animals
leaving their droppings through the city, that was filled with beggars and
noise. I don't think that our notion of Rome, as we see it today, bears very
much relation to the Rome of everyday life. Because what is left today are the
big public buildings not the squalid hovels, without plumbing and without
any kind of sanitary conditions, that ordinary people lived in. That's
precisely the reason why members of the elite preferred to withdraw up onto
the hills and have their villas up on the hills a little bit away from the
noise and away from the stench and away from that incredible hoard of people
pressing close together.
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Terracotta relief of a Roman town. |
In cities, the majority of citizens lived in insulae, street-front shops and workshops with living quarters behind and above them, which together comprised a city block surrounding an open courtyard.
These
poorly-built dwellings often lacked sanitary amenities such as running water,
lavatories, or heat, and were dangerously constructed of wood and brick
making them vulnerable to fire, and liable to collapse. It wasn't until after
the Great Fire that brick-faced concrete made the insulae more
fire-resistant. Roman satirist Juvenal wrote of the dangers:
I would love to live where there are no fears in the dark of night. Even now I smell fire and hear a neighbor cry out for water as he struggles to save his measly belongings. Smoke pours out from the third story as flames move upwards. But the poor wretch who lives at the top with a leaking roof and roosting birds is oblivious to the danger... and sure to burn.Wealthier Romans, and citizens in more rural areas, lived in a domus a house built around an atrium, or unroofed courtyard. The atrium served as both living room and reception area, off of which would be found the cubuculi (bedrooms), the triclinium (dining room), kitchen, and lavatory. As might be expected, the wealthier the Roman the more lavish the rooms and furnishings; the wealthiest Romans might enjoy a private bath or library, and some Romans maintained villas in the countryside.
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Roman
Baths
different and superior to other cultures. As the Empire spread across Europe, the Baths themselves came to represent Roman civilization.
Keith Bradley: Bathing was a central social institution for the Romans. It was not just a means of keeping the body clean. It was not just a process of hygiene. But the baths were places of social activity and social intercourse where people exercised, amused themselves, engaged in conversations, did all kinds of things that we might associate with some form of social club today rather than simply thinking of it as a place in which to cleanse the body |
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Roman
Priests and Priestesses
While
a Paterfamilias performed religious rites on behalf of his family, Roman
priests were necessary to perform rites on behalf of the state. The highest
priests and priestesses of Rome were elected from the Patrician class, and
trained carefully for their jobs. Priests served at temples for Roman gods, and
priestesses served at temples for goddesses.
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Reconstruction of Classical Temple |
Emperors Emperors distributed free food to
Romans to win their political support.
Social standing in the Roman Empire was based in part on
heredity, property and wealth, Roman citizenship, and freedom. The specific
class designations included Senators, Patricians, Equestrians, Plebeians,
Slaves, Freedmen, and non-Roman citizens all of which were ruled by the
Emperor. The boundaries between these classes were legally enforced, although it
was possible to move up the social ladder as one's financial circumstances
improved. During the Empire, entry into the higher classes could be gained upon
acquisition of property and wealth, or at the pleasure of the Emperor in one
famous incident, Caligula even raised a horse to Senatorial rank.
Roman
society was also defined by an established system of patronage, in which an
upper class gentleman patroni offered protection to freedmen, or
members of the lower class cliens. That protection might take the
form of financial assistance, the provision of food, or legal help.
Traditionally, any freed slaves became the cliens of their former
owner.
r.
In return, the patroni received respect and political favors. During the
Empire cliens were required to offer daily greetings to their patroni,
and the number of these salutatores, or greeters, were noted in
determining someone's social status. Roman generals also served as patroni
for the peoples they conquered, and various Roman provinces or cities would
often seek out an influential Senator to act as patroni and oversee their
interests in Rome.
Clothing
laws helped to distinguish the classes. For example, only the Emperor was
allowed to wear a toga which was entirely purple. Senators were allowed to wear
a white toga with the latus clavus a broad purple stripe along the
edge, and Equestrian togas could sport a clavus augustus (narrow purple
stripe).
The
Emperor and his relatives lived in the best villas, had the finest foods,
furnishings, and clothing, and lived a luxurious life of leisure, gossip, and
indulgence. That lifestyle, however, often came at a high price. Succession to
Emperor was not strictly hereditary, and required Senatorial
approval.
Those men (and the families behind them) who coveted the
throne had to constantly jockey for position both within their own families,
and within the many factions among the Senate and dabbled in intrigue,
backstabbing, and even murder.
Patricians
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Equestrians
In
early Roman history, the Equestrian class formed the cavalry. However,
following the lex Claudia laws of 218 BC which prevented Senators
from engaging in commerce the
Equestrians stepped into a more commercial role, and grew into a wealthy class
of businessmen. Appropriate occupations included tax collectors, bankers,
miners, exporters, and administrators of public contracts such as road and
aqueduct building.
Augustus reorganized the Equestrians into a military class, appointed new members, and established the requirements of free birth, good health and character, and ownership of 400,000 sesterces.
Sons
of Senators were automatically classified as Equestrians, until, following both
military and administrative service, they earned a quaestorship and
joined the Senate after age 25. Equestrians worked as civil servants, filling
many of the lower administrative and military posts throughout the Empire. Their
business background made them especially adept at posts in the financial
administration of the provinces.
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| Plebeians By the time of Augustus and the Empire, the term Plebeian referred to all free Roman citizens who were not members of the Patrician or Equestrian classes. Their jobs were low on the social scale
Ronald Mellor: The poor of the ancient world don't speak to us. They don't leave their voices. The writings that come to us from antiquity are the writings of an elite. The art that comes is the art of an elite... But the poor in any city are going to have a very hard time making due. They're going to be working on a per day basis. And if there is rain and there is no work in construction they are going to be close to starvation.While the Plebeians had the least power in Rome, they had the greatest numbers, and there was always the risk of unrest, or uprising against the upper classes. It was to an Emperor's benefit to keep the poor fed and happy by regulating food prices, and offering free public entertainment in other words, "bread and circuses." Karl Galinsky: One key constituency for Augustus was the Plebeian population of Rome and that is basically the city mob. You have several hundred thousand folks here who have no jobs and, to put it very simply, who need to be kept off the streets, and be kept from making trouble. Because it's a very volatile, combustible mix there. |
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Slaves
and Freedmen
Slavery
was an abusive and degrading institution, with a long history in the ancient
world. The majority of slaves during the Roman Empire were foreigners
prisoners of war, sailors captured and sold by pirates, or slaves bought outside
Roman territory. It was not uncommon, however, for impoverished Roman citizens
to resort to selling their children into slavery.
Keith Bradley: Slavery was not based on race. In fact, it was what you could call an equal opportunity condition. Anyone was liable to become a slave at any time under certain sets of circumstances. And in fact the biggest difference between ancient forms of slavery and modern forms of slavery that we tend to be more familiar with is this absence of a sharp color contrast in the two systems.
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Roman fresco |
Seneca: There is a proverb: "you have as many enemies as you have slaves." But in truth, we make them our enemies. We abuse them as if they were beasts of burden. When we recline for dinner, one wipes our spittle, another picks up the scraps and crumbs thrown down by drunkards. The point of my argument is this: "treat your inferior as you would like to be treated."But in Rome, slavery had a remarkable feature: manumission. Roman owners freed their slaves in considerable numbers either freeing them outright, or by allowing slaves to purchase their freedom. The prospect of possible manumission encouraged slaves to be obedient and efficient.
Freedmen
Formal manumission
performed and witnessed by a magistrate bestowed full Roman
citizenship upon a freedman, with the exception that a freedman could not hold
public office.
Under the law, any children born
to freedmen after their manumission
were also given the full rights of Roman citizenship, including the right to
hold office.
Informal manumission did not grant the freedman Roman citizenship, and at
his death any accumulated property reverted to his former owner. Former slaves
could work as craftsmen, midwives, and merchants, and sometimes achieved wealth.
But, in Rome's status conscious world, even successful freedmen found the stigma
of slavery hard to erase.
Andrew Wallace-Hadrill:For the slave, slavery was a necessary evil. And I don't suppose any slave ever thought well of the system of slavery. But it seems to me what's really important about the Roman system of slavery was that it gave every slave a chance to be free. And there must have been an enormous psychological pressure on every single slave that that little light somewhere at the end of the tunnel of the possibility of freedom that made them strive to escape from the evil condition in which they found themselves.
On the Frontiers
As long as the locals maintained order and raised taxes
for the Empire, and as long as local customs or religions did not directly
violate or interfere in Roman law, the conquered peoples were allowed to
continue their practices unmolested and to profit from such benefits as roads
and waterworks that came with the Empire.
Rome would often establish "client kings" to rule on local or
religious matters that did not require Roman authority to decide. The most
infamous example of how this arrangement functioned is the trial of Jesus. He
was originally brought before Pontius Pilate on charges of treason a crime
against Roman laws. After hearing the evidence, however, Pilate found no
evidence of treason, and referred the case to Herod a client king as a
religious dispute. While Herod had the authority to rule on cases of blasphemy
within the Jewish religion, he could not sentence Jesus to death. Capital
punishment could only be invoked under Roman law. Jesus' case was settled by
Pilate, who ordered his crucifixion.
A major shift in the Pax Romana came when Claudius took the throne.
Claudius was more liberal than his predecessors in allowing conquered peoples to
become citizens of Rome. For centuries, the Roman Senate had resisted new blood
among its membership, especially foreign blood. In the year 48 AD, Claudius
argued that men from Gaul modern France be seated amongst them. Claudius
argued:
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The old order was defiant. "He was determined," one senator sneered, "to see all Greeks, Gauls, Spaniards and Britons wearing the toga." But Claudius won the day, and the Empire took a large step towards integration.Why did Sparta and Athens fall though mighty in arms if not because they kept their subjects segregated? Now that the Gauls have joined with us in marriage and culture, let them add their gold and wealth to ours, rather than keep it to themselves. What we do today, will set an example for the future.
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Roman Bedroom, Imperial period,
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Latin Derivatives
open at least the two of following dictionaries so that you might have additional help at your fingertips
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For School, Profession, and Everyday Life |
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by Eugene R. Moutoux |
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| At this site you will more than 1750 Latin derivatives
(English words derived from Latin words), defined and used in original
sentences, as well as many closely related words. Although I originally collected Latin derivatives to help high-school students prepare for college, it is my hope that the collection in its present form, augmented and reformatted, will benefit others as well. Please feel free to make a copy for yourself. Teachers may make additional copies for free distribution to their students. |
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| Click if you are interested in seeing a list of the principal
English words contained in this collection. The derivatives are arranged alphabetically under their respective Latin parent words. Click on a letter to view Latin words beginning with that letter. Under each Latin word you will find one or more English words derived from it. |
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NEW *** Derivatives Quizzes *** NEW |
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The lower class Romans (plebeians) lived in apartment houses, called flats, above or behind their shops. Even fairly well-to-do tradesmen might chose to live in an apartment-building compound over their store, with maybe renters on the upper stories. Their own apartments might be quite roomy, sanitary and pleasant, occasionally with running water. But others were not that nice.
In the apartment houses, or flats, an entire family (grandparents, parents, children) might all be crowded into one room, without running water. They had to haul their water in from public facilities. Fire was a very real threat because people were cooking meals in crowded quarters, and many of the flats were made of wood. They didn't have toilets. They had to use public latrines (toilets).
The upper class Romans (patricians) lived very differently. Their homes were single family homes, which in ancient Rome meant the great grandparents, grandparents, parents, and kids of one family lived in a home together. Homes were made, quite often, of brick with red tile roofs, with rooms arranged around a central courtyard.
The windows and balconies faced the courtyard, not the street, to keep homes safe from burglars. There were painting on the walls and beautiful mosaics on the floor. There was very little furniture, and no carpeting. Wealthy Romans might have a house with a front door, bedrooms, an office, a kitchen, a dining room, a garden, a temple, an atrium, a toilet, and a private bath.
ARCHITECTURE ~ SACRED SITES Colosseum, Circus Maximus, Hippodrome BUILDINGS CATACOMBS ~ BURIALS FORUM HOMES PANTHEON PYRAMIDS THEATERS ~ AMPHITHEATERS
BYZANTINE EMPIRE CARTHAGE ETRUSCANS
ROME CHRONOLOGY ~ TIMELINES ROMAN EMPIRE The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire KINGS
CURRENT DISCOVERIES FROM ANCIENT ROME
CALENDAR CLOTHING ~ HAIR STYLES COINS ~ NUMISMATICS CULTURE EDUCATION FAMILY ~ MARRIAGE FOOD LANGUAGE ~ ALPHABET ~ WRITING LAW & GOVERNMENT POLITICS RECREATION ~ SPORTS & GAMES Gladiators SLAVERY
JULIUS CAESAR EMPORERS ~ Agustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Nerva, Trajan EMPRESSES ~ WOMEN
LITERATURE ~ LIBRARIES CICERO HORACE JOSEPHUS POETS OVID PLUTARCH VIRGIL
RELIGION ~ POPES CHRISTIANITY MITHRAISM
PHILOSOPHY MARCUS AURELIUS PLINY THE ELDER PLOTINUS ROMAN VIRTUES SENECA
MEDICINE SCIENCE ~ TECHNOLOGY VOLCANOES Complete List & Links
In 44 BC, a sickly 18-year-old boy named Gaius Octavius received two shocking pieces of news. Number one: His grandmother's brother, the Roman dictator Julius Caesar, had been murdered. Number two: In his will, Caesar had named young Octavius as his heir.
It was dangerous for anyone, much less an inexperienced boy, to try to step into the dictator's shoes, but against the advice of his family Octavius boldly went to Rome to claim his inheritance. He met opposition from the powerful politician Mark Antony, who had seized Caesar's money and papers and was claiming that he was Caesar's heir and successor.
Nonetheless, Octavius took the name Gaius Julius Caesar, quickly won the allegiance of many of his great-uncle Julius's supporters, and assumed a role in government. (Historians usually refer to him as "Octavian" in the early part of his career, short for Octavianus, although he did not use this name himself.)
At first Octavian worked with Mark Antony; in fact, Antony even married Octavian's sister, Octavia. But eventually the ambitious Antony joined forces with the ruler of Egypt, Cleopatra, and divorced Octavia. Seeing his chance to get rid of Antony, Octavian declared war on Cleopatra.
Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra's forces at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and went on to conquer Egypt. Both Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide, and Octavian used Cleopatra's riches to consolidate his power. Within 20 years of Julius Caesar's death, Octavian was the ruler of the Roman empire. In 27 BC the Senate gave him the title Augustus, meaning "revered" or "venerated."
Octavian returned to Rome without knowing, what he should do next.
All good Romans hated the word king, and Octavian was a good Roman. He just didnt know how he could keep his power with out being proclaimed king of the Romans.
Therefore he promised that he would re-introduce the republic, as soon as he had made Rome safe.
Octavian was an outstanding politician, and he had the Senate grant him many different titles for example consul, but not the title of king.
In that way it looked like the republic was re-introduced bit by bit, but Octavian still kept the ultimate power.
In 27 he called the Senate to a meeting, where he announced, that he was tired, and would retire from all of his duties.
A senator ( who had talked to Octavian before the meeting? ) suggested another settlement. Octavian would keep all of his titles, but beside him there would be appointed another consul.
There were other details in the agreement, but it's enogh to say that Octavian kept all his power.
Octavian accepted this idea, and the Senate granted him the name Augustus ( the elevated ).
In this way it looked like the republic was finally completely re-introduced, but Augustus still kept all of his power.
In 23 Augustus became ill, and when he recovered he again wanted to retire. This time he probably meant it, but he was persuaded to stay in office.
Augustus resigned as consul, and became tribune instead. He still kept his power.
Augustus was a vise emperor. He appeared to re-introduce the republic, but he had more and more power for each year of his reign.
Also Augustus had men to win his wars and make his empire bigger.
He was probably the best man who could have had the empire.
Some Roman historians hint that it was actually Augustus' wife Livia who ruled the country through him, and that Livia also killed many members of the emperial family to make way for her own son Tiberius as the new emperor, but nothing has ever been proved.
He died in 14 ad. At that time he had had absolute power for almost 45 years.
Importance of Roman History.As we
begin the study of Roman history, we may ask ourselves the question, Why is this
subject important and worthy of our attention? It is because Rome was one of the
greatest powers of the ancient world, and has also exercised a great influence
upon nearly all modern nations. There are a few great peoples, like the Hebrews,
the Greeks, and the Romans, who have done much to make the world what it is. If
these peoples had never existed, our life and customs would no doubt be very
different from what they are now. In order, then, to understand the world in
which we live to-day, we must study these world-peoples, who may have lived many
centuries ago, but who have given to us much that makes us what we aremuch of
our language, our literature, our religion, our art, our government and law. Again, we may look at the way in which Rome
ruled her subjects, the way in which she built up, from the various lands and
peoples that she conquered, a great state, with its wonderful system of
government and law. We shall then see the work of her statesmen and lawgivers,
her magistrates, her senate, and her assemblies. From this point of view she
will seem to us the great governing nation of the world. The Italian Peninsula.The study
of Roman history properly begins with the geography of Italy; because it was in
Italy that the Roman people had their origin, and it was here that they began
their great career. It was only when the Romans had conquered and organized
Italy that they were able to conquer and govern the world. If we look at the map
( The Settlement of Italy. - Long
before Rome was founded, every part of Italy was already peopled. Many of the
peoples living there came from the north, around the head of the Adriatic,
pushing their way toward the south into different parts of the peninsula. Others
came from Greece by way of the sea, settling upon the southern coast. It is of
course impossible for us to say precisely how Italy was settled.
Rome and the Ancient World.We often think of the
Romans as the people who conquered the world. But Rome not only conquered the
most important countries of the old world; she also made of these different
countries one united people, so that the ancient world became at last the Roman
world. The old countries which bordered. upon the Mediterranean Sea - Carthage
and Egypt, Palestine and Syria, Greece and Macedoniaall became parts of the
Roman Empire. The ideas and customs, the art and institutions, of these
countries were taken up and welded together into what we call Roman
civilization. We may, therefore, say that Rome was the highest product of the
ancient world.
Rome and the Modern World.If Rome held such an
important relation to the ancient world, she has held a still more important
relation to the modern world. When the Roman Empire fell and was broken up into
fragments, some of these fragments became the foundation of modern
statesItaly, Spain, France, and England. Rome is thus the connecting link
between ancient and modern history. She not only gathered up the products of the
ancient world, she also transmitted these products to modern times. What she
inherited from the past she bequeathed to the future, together with what she
herself created. On this account we may say that Rome was the foundation of the
modern world.
Phases of Roman History.As we approach the study of
Roman history, we shall find that we can look at it from different points of
view; and it will present to us different phases.
In the first place, we may look at the external growth of
Rome. We shall then see her territory gradually expanding from a small spot on
the Tiber, until it takes in the whole peninsula of Italy, and finally all the
countries on the Mediterranean Sea. Our attention will then be directed to her
generals, her armies, her battles, her conquests. We may trace on the map the
new lands and new peoples which she gradually brought under her sway. Looked at
from this point of view, Rome will appear to us as the great conquering
nation of the world.
The Mediterranean World
Finally, we may look at the way in which the Romans were
themselves improved in their manners and customs, as they came into contact with
other peopleshow they learned lessons even from those whom they conquered,
and were gradually changed from a rude, barbarous people to a highly civilized
and cultivated nation. We shall see the straw-thatched huts of early times
giving place to magnificent temples and theaters and other splendid buildings.
We shall see the rude speech of the early Romans growing into a noble language,
capable of expressing fine, poetic feeling and lofty sentiments of patriotism.
We shall also see Rome giving the fruits of her culture to the less favored
peoples whom she takes under her control; and when she passes away, we shall see
her bequeathing her treasures to future generations. From this point of view
Rome will appear to us as the great civilizing nation of the world.
In order to understand the Romans well, we should look at them
in all these phases we should study their conquests, their government, and their
civilization.
Boundaries and Extent of Italy.In very early times,
the name Italy was applied only to the very southern part of the
peninsula. But from this small area it was extended so as to cover the whole
peninsula which actually projects into the sea, and finally the whole territory
south of the Alps. The peninsula is washed on the east by the Adriatic or Upper
Sea, and on the west by the Tyrrhenian or Lower Sea. Italy lies for the most
part between the parallels of thirty-eight degrees and forty-six degrees north
latitude. It has a length of about 720 miles; a width varying from 330 to 100
miles; and an area of about 91,000 square miles.
The Mountains of Italy.There are two famous mountain
chains which belong to Italy, the Alps and the Apennines. (1) The Alps
form a semicircular boundary on the north and afford a formidable barrier
against the neighboring countries of Europe. Starting from the sea at its
western extremity, this chain stretches toward the north for about 150 miles,
when it rises in the lofty peak of Mt. Blanc, 15,000 feet in height; and then
continues its course in an easterly direction for about 330 miles, approaching
the head of the Adriatic Sea, and disappearing along its coast. It is crossed by
several passes, through which foreign peoples have sometimes found their way
into the peninsula. (2) The Apennines, beginning at the western extremity
of the Alps, extend through the whole length of the peninsula, forming the
backbone of Italy. From this main line are thrown off numerous spurs and
scattered peaks. Sometimes the Apennines have furnished to Rome a kind of
barrier against invaders from the north.
Mountains, Rivers, and Divisions of Italy
The Rivers of Italy.The most important river of
Italy is the Po, which, with its hundred tributaries, drains the fertile valley
in the north, lying between the Alps and the Apennines. The eastern slope of the
peninsula proper is drained by a large number of streams, the most noted of
which are the Rubicon, the Metaurus, the Frento, and the Aufidus. On the western
slope the most important river is the Tiber, with its tributary, the Anio.
Climate and Products.The climate of Italy varies
greatly as we pass from the north to the south. In the valley of the Po the
winters are often severe, and the air is chilled by the neighboring snows of the
Alps. In central Italy the climate is mild and agreeable, snow being rarely seen
south of the Tiber, except on the ranges of the Apennines; while in southern
Italy we approach a climate almost tropical, the land being often swept by the
hot south wind, the sirocco, from the plains of Africa.
The soil of Italy is generally fertile, especially in the
plains of the Po and the fields of Campania. The staple products in ancient
times were wheat, the olive, and the vine. For a long period Italy took the lead
of the world in the production of olive oil and wine. The production of wheat
declined when Rome, by her conquests, came into commercial relation with more
fertile countries, such as Egypt.
The Divisions of Italy.For the purpose of
convenience and to aid us in our future study, we may divide ancient Italy into
three divisions: northern, central, and southern.
(1) Northern Italy comprised the whole continental
portion from the Alps to a line drawn from the river Macra on the west to the
Rubicon on the east. It contained three distinct countries: Liguria toward the
west, Cisalpine Gaul in the center, and Venetia toward the east.
(2) Central Italy comprised the northern part of the
peninsula proper, that is, the territory between the line just drawn from the
Macra to the Rubicon, and another line drawn from the Silarus on the west to the
Frento on the east. This territory contained six countries, namely, three on the
western coast,Etruria, Latium (la'shi-um), and Campania; and three on
the eastern coast and along the Apennines,Umbria, Picenum, and what we call
the Sabellian country, which included many mountain tribes, chief among which
were the Sabines, the Frentani, and the Samnites.
(3) Southern Italy comprised the rest of the peninsula
and contained four countries, namely, two on the western coast, Lucania and
Bruttium, extending into the toe of Italy; and two on the eastern coast, Apulia
and Calabria (or Iapygia), extending into the heel of Italy.
It
is enough for us at present to know that most of the earlier settlers spoke an
Indo-European, or Aryan, language, and that when they first appeared in Italy
they were scarcely civilized, living upon their flocks and herds and just
beginning to cultivate the soil.
The Italic Tribes.The largest part of the peninsula
was occupied by a number of tribes which made up the so-called Italic race.1
We may for convenience group these tribes into four divisions the Latins, the
Oscans, the Sabellians, and the Umbrians. (1) The Latins dwelt in central
Italy, just south of the Tiber. They lived in villages scattered about Latium,
tilling their fields and tending their flocks. The village was a collection of
straw-thatched huts; it generally grew up about a hill, which was fortified, and
to which the villagers could retreat in times of danger. Many of these Latin
villages or hill-towns grew into cities, which were united into a league for
mutual protection, and bound together by a common worship (of Jupiter
Latiaris); and an annual festival which they celebrated on the Alban Mount,
near which was situated Alba Longa, their chief city (see map,
p. 46).
(2) The Oscans were the remnants of an early Italic
people which inhabited the country stretching southward from Latium, along the
western coast. In their customs they were like the Latins, although perhaps not
so far advanced. Some authors include in this branch the Aequians, the Hernicans,
and the Volscians, who carried on many wars with Rome in early times.
(3) The Sabellians embraced the most numerous and
warlike peoples of the Italic stock. They lived to the east and south of the
Latins and Oscans, extending along the ridges and slopes of the Apennines. They
were devoted not so much to farming as to the tending of flocks and herds. They
lived also by plundering their neighbors harvests and carrying off their
neighbors cattle. They were broken up into a great number of tribes, the most
noted of which were the Samnites, a hardy race which became the great rival of
the Roman people for the possession of central Italy. Some of the Samnite people
in very early times moved from then mountain home and settled in the fertile
plain of Campania.
(4) The Umbrians lived to the north of the Sabellians.
They are said to have been the oldest people of Italy. But when the Romans came
into contact with them, they had become crowded into a comparatively small
territory, and were easily conquered. They were broken up into small tribes,
living in hill-towns and villages, and these were often united into loose
confederacies.
The
Etruscans.Northwest of Latium dwelt the Etruscans, in some respects the
most remarkable people of early Italy. Their origin is shrouded in mystery. In
early times they were a powerful nation, stretching from the Po to the Tiber,
and having possessions even in the plains of Campania. Their cities were
fortified, often in the strongest manner, and also linked together in
confederations. Their prosperity was founded not only upon agriculture, but also
upon commerce.
Their religion was a gloomy and weird superstition, in which
they thought that they could discover the will of the gods by means of augury,
that is, by watching the flight of birds and by examining the entrails of
animals. The Etruscans were great builders; and their massive walls, durable
roads, well-constructed sewers, and imposing sepulchers show the greatness of
their civilization.
The Greeks in Italy.But the most civilized and
cultivated people in Italy were the Greeks, who had planted their colonies at
Tarentum, and on the western coast as far as Naples (Neapolis) in
Campania. So completely did these coasts become dotted with Greek cities,
enlivened with Greek commerce, and influenced by Greek culture, that this part
of the peninsula received the name of Magna Graecia.2
The Gauls.If the Greeks in the extreme south were
the most civilized people of Italy, the Gauls or Celts, in the extreme north,
were the most barbarous. Crossing the Alps from western Europe, they had pushed
back the Etruscans and occupied the plains of the Po; hence this region received
the name which it long held, Cisalpine Gaul. They held this territory against
the Ligurians on the west and the Veneti on the east; and for a long time were
the terror of the Italian people.
2000-1000 BCE:
Rome Indo-European immigrants slowly inhabit Italy by way of the Alps. They bring the horse, the wheeled cart, and artistic knowledge of bronze work to the Italian peninsula. Two different groups, the Greeks and the Etruscans, occupy different regions of the peninsula during the eighth century.
753 BCE:
Rome Archeological research indicates that the founders of Rome itself are Italic people who occupy the area south of the Tiber River. By the sixth century BCE, Rome will have become the dominant power of most of its surrounding area. Their conservative government consists of a kingship, resembling the traditional values of the patriarchal family; an assembly, composed of male citizens of military age; and a Senate, comprised of elders who serve as the heads of different community sects.
600 BCE: Rome The Etruscans, believed to be natives of Asia Minor, establish cities stretching from northern to central Italy. Their major contributions to the Romans are the arch and the vault, gladiatorial combat for entertainment and the study of animals to predict future events. The Greeks establish city-states along the southern coast of Italy and the island of Sicily. Their contributions to the Romans are the basis of the Roman alphabet, many religious concepts and artistic talent as well as mythology.
The Principal Gods of Greek mythology
Note: Hephaestus is often said to be only Hera's son, and Aphrodite is usually said to be born of sea foam.
Roman/Greek
The Roman deities and their Greek counterparts. See also: Greek vs Roman
Roman name Greek name Aesculapius Asclepius Aquilo Boreas Aurora Eos Auster Notus Bacchus Dionysus Bellona Enyo Ceres Demeter Cupid (Amor) Eros Decima Lachesis Diana Artemis Dis Pater, Pluto, Orcus Hades Discordia Eris Fama Pheme Faun Satyr Faunus Pan Favonius Zephyrus Flora Chloris Fortuna Tyche Furies Erinyes Galinthis Galinthias Gratiae Charites (Graces) Hercules Heracles Juno Hera Jupiter Zeus Justitia Themis Juventas Hebe Latona Leto Lucifer Phosporus Luna Selene Mars Ares Matuta Eos Mercury Hermes Minerva Athena Morta Atropos Necessitas Ananke Neptune Poseidon Nona Clotho Parcae Moirae (Fates) Pax Irene Proserpina Persephone Salacia Amphitrite Salus Hygieia Saturn Cronus Silvanus Silenus Sol Helios Somnus Hypnos Stimula Semele Tellus Gaia Trivia Hecate Ulysses Odysseus Veiovis Asclepius Venus Aphrodite Vesper Hesperos Vesta Hestia Victoria Nike Vulcan Hephaestus Vulturnus Eurus
Etruscan mythology
The very earliest settlements along the Tiber River in the region that later became the city of Rome were most probably ruled by a chieftain or warlord with the support of the heads of the leading families within or near the settlement.
Virgil and the other epic writers tell us that the city of Rome was founded by Romulus, and that early on he murdered his brother Remus for ridiculing his pomerium, or the sacred boundary of the city he had founded.
This city was named Rome after its legendary founder, and we have a suitably heroic beginning for a city that would one day rule the entire Western world. Writers of later eras, including many Romans, would infer quite a bit from the part of the story where Romulus murders his brother, and say that as Rome was founded in an act of bloodshed, so the shedding of blood would become part of the Roman legacy.
Certainly this is true, but any civilization that became dominant in that era would necessarily had to have shed much blood in the process of doing so.
While most historians consider the founding legends of Rome and the person of Romulus to be non - historical, They are fairly certain that Rome was ruled by kings during her early years. Kings Numa Pompilius and Ancus Marcius are legendary figures shrouded in mystery, while the sixth king, Servius Tullus, emerges as a historical personality.
Historians are fairly certain that three of Rome's seven kings were Etruscan. None of these early kings were absolute rulers; they all required the support of the ruling aristocracy. The important principle to understand concerning this period is that the ruling class consisted of the heads of the most prominent families of the community. These families were organized into gentes or clans, and the clans were organized into tribes.
It was under the Roman Kings that the Roman ability to create an empire of sorts first came to the fore, even though any original intentions will hardly have been of an imperial nature.
In all there was said to have been seven kings of Rome covering a period of over two hundred years.
The first king of Rome was the mythical Romulus (753-715 BCE), the fabled founder, was the first. To him is attributed the founding, the extension to four of the Roman hill, - the Capitoline, Aventine, Caelian and Quirinal -, and the infamous rape of the Sabine women.
The second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius (715-673 BCE) , owing to the influence of his adviser, the nymph and prophetess Egeria, enjoyed a peaceful reign.
The third king, however, Tullius Hositilius (673 - 642 BCE), was responsible
for the destruction of Alba Longa and the removal of its inhabitants to Rome.
With the literal destruction of this opponent they took over the sacred
festivals of Latium and all the regional prestige and status that came with it.
The fourth king, Ancus Marcius (642 - 617 BCE) , extended the city further, built the first bridge across the across the Tiber and founded Ostia at the mouth of that river to serve Rome as a seaport.- All evidence of the city's increasing power.
The fifth king, Tarquinius Priscus (617 - 579 BCE), was an Etruscan, though how he secured his kingship is unknown. He continued the work of conquest, but found time to build the first sewer, the Cloaca Maxima, laid out the Circus Maximus, and began to erect on the Capitoline Hill a great temple to Jupiter.
The sixth king, Servius Tullius (579 - 535 BCE), was a celebrated monarch of great achievements. He made the division of the people into tribes and classes, thus setting up a constitution in which wealth was the dominant consideration. Also he is said to have enlarged the city by building a wall around it, five miles in circumference with nineteen gates, embracing all the seven hills of Rome. He transferred the regional festival of Diana from Aricia to the Aventine Hill of Rome. Shortly afterwards a massive temple of ca. 60 metres length and 50 width (begun by Tarquinius Priscus) was dedicated on the Capitoline Hill to Jupiter.
The seventh king, Tarquinius Superbus (534 - 510 BCE) , was Rome's last. He continued with great vigour the work of extending the power of the city, and the founding of colonies by him was the beginning of Rome's path to supremacy of the world.
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THE WORLD WITHIN >>>> " DOMUS"
task: 1. write for the first paragraphe
a) in what way the Roman household is similar to the modern US home b) what are differences
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Roman Bedroom, Imperial period,
Metropolitan Museum of Art
509 BCE: Rome The Roman monarchy is overthrown and replaced with a republic. For more than two centuries following the establishment of the Roman Republic, Rome is constantly at war with the other inhabitants of Italy (the Etruscans and the Greeks).
494 BCE: Rome The first victory of the plebeian class over the patricians results in agreement between the two classes to allow the plebeians to elect officers, tribunes, with the power to veto any unlawful acts of the magistrates.
450 BCE: Rome The Law of the Twelve Tables is established allowing the plebeians to have knowledge of their relationship to the law. The plebeians are primarily farmers, craftsmen and tradesmen with foreign background. The patricians make up an aristocracy.
367 BCE: Rome The first plebeian consul is elected to the assembly, and plebeians become eligible to serve as lesser magistrates, formerly a position only granted to the aristocratic class. Because an ancient custom allows promotion from magistracy to the Senate, the patrician-dominated Senate is broken.
287 BCE: The Roman system of coinage is established.
265 BCE: Rome initiates the Punic Wars with Carthage, an oligarchic empire stretching from the northern coast of Africa to the Strait of Gibraltar. The primary cause of these Wars is Carthaginian expansion into the Greek cities of Sicily. Carthage is forced to surrender its control over the western region of Sicily, which marks the end of the First Punic War.
218 BCE: The Romans renew their efforts against Carthage due to Carthaginian expansion in Spain, which lasts 16 years. At the end of the Second Punic War, Carthage is forced to surrender all Carthaginian territory to Rome with the exception of their capital city in northern Africa.
149 - 146 BCE: The Third Punic War results in the total loss of Carthaginian territory. Its inhabitants are sold into slavery and the capital city is burned. The total accumulation of territory as a result of these wars is a Roman empire including Spain, northern Africa, Greece, Asia Minor and rule over Egypt.
146 - 30 BCE: As a result of the Punic Wars, Roman civilization witnesses a series of cultural conflicts ranging from class conflicts and assassinations to slave retaliation in Sicily in 104 BCE and 73 BCE. The class conflicts begin with the two tribunes Tiberius Gracchus (elected in 133 BCE and Gaius Gracchus (elected in 123 BCE). The Gracchi brothers both strive for reforms of the Roman Republic, but fail due to the conservative customs of the upper class and their resistance to change. Following the attempts of the Gracchi brothers are those of two military leaders, Marius and Sulla.
140 BCE: The introduction of Stoicism into Rome is a major influence on Roman leaders. Cicero, "the father of Roman eloquence," derives the bulk of his thought from the Stoics, though he is well read in both Plato and Aristotle. Cicero's prose is primarily a fusion of Roman political thought and Stoicism's basic beliefs that happiness is attained by way of the virtuous life and the highest good is tranquility of mind.
107 BCE: Marius is appointed to consulship and rules the state by military means until his death in 86 BCE.
98 BCE: Lucretius, author of On the Nature of Things, is the most renowned of the Roman Epicureans. Epicureanism is one of the most notable influences the Greek world bestows on Roman civilization. Lucretius' poetry explains the Epicurean beliefs of obtaining the "good life" through peace of mind and disbelief in the fear of the supernatural and any afterlife. He dies in 55 BCE.
82 BCE: Following the death of Marius, the ruthless aristocrat Sulla is appointed dictator and retires after three years. Because Sulla grants full control of the Roman empire to the aristocracy, his efforts are challenged by two leaders in defense of the Roman people, Julius Caesar and Pompey. These two leaders join their efforts to seize the Roman government but soon become rivals.
70 BCE: A close friend of Horace, the poet Virgil authors The Eclogues and The Aeneid. He is later considered a prophet of Christianity in the Middle Ages. He dies in 19 BCE.
65 BCE: Horace authors the Odes, which glorify Roman imperialism. Horace's literature exemplifies the fusion of Epicureanism and Stoicism. He dies in 8 BCE.
52 BCE: Pompey is elected as sole consul by the Senate, and Caesar is declared an enemy of the Roman Republic. Caesar, at first stationed in Gaul, marches into Rome in 49 BCE, and in 48 BCE, the two men war at Pharsalus in Greece. With the defeat of Pompey, Caesar campaigns in Egypt and Asia Minor before returning to Rome.
46 BCE: Rome - Caesar is appointed dictator and assumes total control from the Senate. On a charge that he intends to make himself king, he is assassinated on the Ides of March (44 BCE) by a group leadership led by Brutus and Cassius. Among Caesar's contributions to Rome are the 365 day calendar with an extra day every four years, agricultural wealth for Rome and urban culture in the West due to his efforts to expand westward, and the cultural assimilation of the various regions under Roman rule.
42 BCE: Rome - Having learned of Caesar's death while stationed in Gaul, Octavian returns to Rome to collect his inheritance as sole heir to his granduncle's empire. Upon his arrival he aligns himself with two of Caesar's friends, Mark Antony and Lepidus, in an attempt to overthrow the aristocratic group responsible for Caesar's murder. Octavian and his allies defeat Brutus and Cassias near Philippi. Following the victory, a quarrel develops between Octavian and his forces in the west and Mark Antony and his new ally, Cleopatra.
31 BCE: Rome - Antony and Cleopatra are defeated by Octavian, ensuring the prosperity of Greek ideals without threat from the eastern principles of despotism. His victory begins a new Roman era, called the Principate or Early Empire. The Senate and army bestow the name of Augustus and emperor ("victorious general") upon Octavian, and he is commonly referred to as Augustus. Having gained more land for Rome than any other ruler before him, Augustus dies in 14 CE with his rule having lasted 44 years.
1 CE: Rome - Though the exact year is not known, a sixth century monk attributes this time to the birth of Je
http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/mapcenter/Map.aspx?name=France
Encarta : maps & regions
Definition of Solstice: How people and animals respond to the seasons
Those Romans knew how to party.
http://www.candlegrove.com/sacaea.html
http://www.celestia.com/SRP/MJ96/SummerSolstice.html
The first roadside attraction?
Just as the owners of very large balls of twine have to be careful when they make claims about theirs being the largest, I can't be certain that the oracle at Delphi is the world's oldest tourist attraction. Instead, I'm just going to say with all confidence that it's really, really old.
As long ago as 1400 BC, the oracle was considered to be the bellybutton of the world--literally. There's even a giant sculpture on display at the museum there that is supposed to represent the world's navel (in case you're wondering, it's an outtie).
People traveled from far and wide to get predictions from the priestess of the temple of Apollo. She would make cryptically worded predictions on subjects such as when to plant seeds or wage war, and people would debate her statements to ferret out their meaning. Sometimes, if people didn't understand or didn't like what she said, they'd pay for another reading.
This is the key element that makes me classify the oracle as an early roadside attraction. It was essentially a money-making operation, and a long-lasting one, at that. The oracle continued providing fortunes for fees until AD 400, when a newly Christian Rome forbade it.
Most roadside attractions bring in a steady flow of money over the years, even when other industries wax and wane. This is one of the reasons we have so many roadside attractions in the United States. Many small towns rely on them to keep the civic blood pumping. Even if the attraction is exceedingly silly, there is nothing shameful about it as long as it makes a profit. That's the American way.
Still, it's Greek to us
Since the Greeks were in on the roadside attraction business early, is it any wonder we copied their Parthenon?
That's right. We built a full-sized replica of the Parthenon in Nashville, Tennessee. This one is actually in better shape than the original, which is falling apart due to age and the fact that it once stored gunpowder that was ignited in 1687 by a Venetian army's cannonball.
Inside the Tennessee Parthenon is a statue of Athena that's nearly 42 feet tall, making it "the largest piece of indoor sculpture in the Western World," according to the Nashville Parthenon's Web site. (The site also says their Parthenon has the largest set of matching bronze doors in the world, which suggests there is an even bigger mismatched pair out there somewhere. Now that would be a sight to see.)
Tennesseans went back even further in history to re-create an Egyptian pyramid in Memphis, Tennessee. Instead of using it to usher dead royalty into the afterlife, however, they hold sporting events and concerts there, including--appropriately--an appearance by the Grateful Dead back when Jerry Garcia was still among the grateful living.
The Parthenon in Nashville, Tennessee
While it might seem that pyramids and Memphis have nothing to do with each other, this isn't exactly the case. Memphis is named for an ancient capital of Egypt. Of course, the Great Pyramid was not built in Memphis, but rather, in Giza, around 2500 BC. But, as Americans, we sometimes aren't all that picky about our historical details. (We can always look up the facts in Encarta, after all.)
Crazy collections and supersize stuff
Despite our creative reinventions of history, one thing Americans do particularly well is collect unusual objects and put them on display in exchange for cash. If we had piles and piles of Renaissance art, we would do as the Italians and put everything in elegant museums like the Uffizi. But America has piles and piles of other things, with far more esoteric value. We gather them up and either sell them on eBay or call them roadside attractions.
One of the most disturbing of these collections is in the Mutter Museum in Philadelphia. You might think, "Hey, mutter means mother in German; what's so disturbing about that?" Think again. This museum has more than 20,000 medical exhibits, including 900 preserved anatomical and pathological specimens, including the Secret Tumor of Grover Cleveland. There's also a giant colon replica. Yuck. This could be a good place to take children who've misbehaved on the car trip. (Unless, of course, the kids you're traveling with are fascinated by such stuff.)
Supersize it
Anyone can roll twine into a ball, right? Maybe so. But it takes a very special kind of person to roll a giant ball of twine. This person needs a lot of twine, and a lot of time.
The largest ball of twine ever to be rolled by one man is in Darwin, Minnesota, where it was moved after the death of the fellow who had created it over a 29-year stint. It measures 40 feet around and weighs 8.7 tons.
The other largest ball of twine is actually a ball of string. And it was rolled by more than one person, a detail that proud Darwinians are careful to note. In any event, the giant string ball--according to Ripley's Exhibits, which now owns it--measures 41 ft, 5 in around and weighs more than 6 tons. It's on display in Branson, Missouri.
If string is not your thing, you might prefer the giant muskie on display at the National Freshwater Fishing Hall of Fame in northwest Wisconsin. You'd be in good company; more than 100,000 people a year stop by and take in the splendor of the four-and-a-half-story leaping muskie, which holds a museum in its belly and a 20-person observation deck in its mouth.
If only the monster fish were in South Dakota, instead of Wisconsin, it would
be a perfect meal for the giant statesmen featured on the Mac Daddy of roadside
attractions, Mount Rushmore.
La Corse
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Marseilles, Massilia,
Entremont 
to see the
location>>>>
MASSALIA
ma-'sal-é-a
Arles, Bouches-du-Rhone,
Constantina, Gallia Narbonensis
to see the
location>>>> click >>>>>>
Visiting Nīmes and its region will stimulate all five senses. The splendour of the Roman monuments. The rustling of the `garrigue' and the clamour of the feria. The fragrance of the Provencal markets. Cooking with olive oil.The heat of the stone, warmed by the sun.
click below...........>>>>>>"a bridge though the ages"
Orange / former Roman " Arausio"
Arausio
to see the location>>>> click
>>>>>>>>>>>>>
ORANGE
ó-ranzh
Comata, Lugudunum
to see the location>>>> click >>>>>>>>>>>>>
LYONS
click >>>>
| Gallo-Roman sites |
Roman Lyon was proclaimed capital of the Three Gauls by the emperor Augustus. The glory of this epoch lives on in the shape of amphitheatre, odeon, aqueducts and mosaics.
![[Image jpeg de grande taille]](http://www.ec-lyon.fr/tourisme/photographies/b13l.jpg)
![[Image jpeg de grande taille]](http://www.ec-lyon.fr/tourisme/photographies/a82l.jpg)
but if you go back up and look at the front of the photo where the choir & altar is
you will see the beginning of GOTHIC style - truly an architecture originating in France where the arches become more and more pointed at the top
Vercingetorix, bronze statue in Alésia.
A Roman denarius showing the hesd of Augustus Caesar, minted c.
AD 1-4. Some 45 per cent of the denarii recovered from the battlefield site are
of this type.
Varus, Varus !!! Give me back my legions !!!!
VARUS'S LAST BATTLE
Augustus Caesar pushed the frontiers of roman dominion outward in almost every
direction. The frontier between the subject province of Gaul and barbarian
Germany was to prove especially troublesome, and the whole of Rome was
eventually to be challenged by one barbarian leader, Arminius, of the Cherusci
tribe. But Arminius, whom Tacitus called the liberator of Germany, was not the
first German to threaten Rome. A century before, after pushing the Roman armies
as far as Orange, in southern France, the Germans had advanced on Italy
itself.They were stopped, however, by one of Rome's outstanding generals,
Marius, who defeated them at Aixen-Provence in 102 BC and obliterated them at
Vercelli the following year.
A Roman denarius showing the hesd of Augustus Caesar, minted c.
AD 1-4. Some 45 per cent of the denarii recovered from the battlefield site
are of this type.
Augustus had gradually pushed Rome's eastern European frontier to the Danube. But a frontier consisting of the Rhine and the Danube made a very long and devious line, including a right angle along their upper courses. An Elbe-Danube line would be a great deal shorter, communications would be easier, and potentially hostile tribesmen would be safely enclosed within the Empire. So Augustus' younger stepson, Drusus, crossed the Rhine to fight four successive campaigns in Germany. He reached the Weser and finally, in 9 BG, the Elbe. The Romans built fortresses, and the entire area from the Rhine to the Elbe was regarded as a new Roman province, Germania.
A breast plate showing buckle and leather strap
The Germans were, for the most part, semi-civilized pastoral nomads. Tacitus, the greatest historian of the era, vividly describes these people with their wild blue eyes, reddish hair, and hulking bodies, politically unstable tribesmen who loved a fight but disdained work. The Romans hated their new province, 'bristling with woods or festering with swamps', but Roman influence gradually seeped in, and modern excavations show that a good deal of trade was conducted.
A small selection of Roman denarii found by the author on the
site.
One Roman governor after another fought laborious campaigns to consolidate the new conquests and frontiers. The greatest weakness lay in the fact that the shorter Elbe-Danube frontier could not be completed until Bohernia (now the Czech Republic) was conquered too.This became obvious when an astute German chief, Marobodus, led his tribe, the Marcomanni, o n a migration from occupied southwestern Germany into free Bohernia and established authority over the German tribes of Saxony and Silesia.The Roman government decided that it was imperative to put a stop to the expansion of Marobodus. In AD 6, therefore, 12 legions were launched in a massive three-pronged invasion under the supreme command of Augusts' elder stepson and heir apparent, Tiberius. But a huge revolt broke out in northernYugoslavia, putting an end to the campaign against Marobodus. Nevertheless, he agreed terms with Rome and was recognised as a king and as a friend of the Roman people. Meanwhile, theYugoslavian revolt, described as Rome's gravest foreign threat since Hannibal, took three years to suppress.
An artist's impression of the final part of the battle in the
bogs and flooded woods of the Teutoberger Forests.
The new province of Germany watched these events with keen interest. The Romans were not allconqering, after all; they had given up their war against Marobodus and made him their ally. The Yugoslavian rebels had shown that prolonged resistance to their power was not beyond the bounds of possibility.
Hermann's Denkmal (the statue of Arminius) situated near Detmold in Germany.
Earlier, in AD 4, Tiberius, at that time Governor of Germany had given an important West Germanic tribe, the Cherusci, the privileged position of a federated state within the Empire. Members of their ruling class were made Roman citizens, among them the young prince Arminius (Herman). Arminius entered the imperial service as an officer in its auxiliary military forces, gaining the status of a Roman knight. But the Romans overestimated the extent to which they had successfully assimilated their new province. Encouraged by revolts in the Empire, German aspirations to freedom and prowess in arms both found their champion in Arminius.
These were the circumstances when the new Roman governor, Publius Quinctilius Varus, reached Germany. Husband of Augustus' grandniece, Varus was among the Emperor's closest friends and had a hard-won reputation for firmness and order.When he arrived in Germany, however, he miscalculated the situation. He regarded the country as already subjugated and believed he could impose civilian methods of control, such as were possible in the rich, wellorganised provinces he had hitherto governed. Like his predecessors, he proposed to winter on the Rhine but spend the summer at advanced posts far inside the recently conquered province. And so in AD 9 he established a summer camp for his three legions (6,000 men in each) in Cheruscan territory. Two other legions were left behind on the Rhine. His own advance headquarters were on the West bank of the Weser.
Varus befriended the Cheruscan chiefs, Segestes, and his brother Segimerus, little realising that Arminius and Segimerus were even then plotting against him. Some of the chiefs, in particular Segestes, tried to warn the governor of this impending treachery, but Varus was persuaded to lend the conspirators legionary detachments, which they said they needed to guard certain posts and escort supplies for the Roman army. Moreover, when the time came forVarus to withdraw to the Rhine for the winter, the plotters persuaded him to change his route. He had intended to march back to his winter camp at Vetera by the military road, but a fictitious report of a local rising induced him to make a northwesterly detour through difficult wooded country. The conspirators saw the main army off from their summer camp on the Weser. As Varus took his leave, the Cherusci asked to rejoin their tribes - ostensibly to recruit men to help put down the revolt that they had invented.
A Roman aureus (gold).
Ferocious storms and foul weather followed every step of the legions' march towards the Lippe, and then to the north west to go to the assistance of Arminius in pursuit of the alleged German tribal uprisings.The column moved slowly. It was encurnbered by a heavy baggage train and large numbers of women, children and servants. As it proceeded through the rough country, felling trees and making paths and causeways it was suddenly showered with missiles. The Germans had attacked. As that first day lengthened into late afternoon, the Romans were dogged by harrying ambushes, with flights of spears and javelins whistling down at them from the wooded slopes. The legionaries were hampered by the wind, rain and mud that had always made them dislike Germany. They had too few auxiliaries - cavalry, archers and slingers - to strike back effectively. All they could do was press on and hope to reach the nearest fortress. The storms were now tearing through the woods, throwing trees and branches into their path, splitting their forces, and providing continuous ambush positions for the Cherusci. Alarmingly, the Romans were now being attacked both from the flanks and from the rear. They suffered heavy losses.
When the day ended they made camp and hastily fortified it with earthworks.
Here they burnt a large number of their baggage and stores wagons because they
were having great difficulty keeping them moving through the entanglements of
the forests and ravines.
Next morning they renewed their march and the going became a little better as
they moved continuously towards the north west, but they were still hemmed in by
dose country and ravines.Then harrying attacks began again, and went on
throughout that day. But towards evening they broke free of the Berglands and
into open country, regrouped, and quickly built another camp. Some 13,000
soldiers of the original three Legions that had started out on the march from
summer camp had been slaughtered, their bodies littering the hills and ravines
of the Teutoberger Ridge, over 20-30 km to the south-east of their last
position.
The decimated legions, possibly now only 7,000 strong, and the remaining force of badly mau1ed cavalry, would have spent the night knowing their end was near. It was reported that one of the commanders, NumoniusVala, lost bis nerve and rode off with the remains of his men in the vain hope of reaching the Rhine. His cavalry force broke out during the night, trying to thrust forward through the hills due west, possibly through an area known as Borgewedde, and on to the friendly lands of the Ems, and beyond. Most likely they were wiped out to a man by tribesmen poised in the hills and waiting for such a move.
Varus was wounded. He knew what the Germans would do to him if they caught
him alive. To avoid this fate, he killed himself. Some members of his staff
followed his example, and the two generals who were left in charge did not long
survive. One mistakenly offered capitulation, which turned into a massacre; the
other fell fighting as the Germans broke through to where he and a few selected
legionaries were trying to burn the body of Varus and bury the remains.They were
swiftly killed.
At first light the largest remaining contingent of legionaries broke out to the
north west, towards a narrow defile lying between the hills of the Kalkriese
Berg, and the Great Moor to the north. However, they ran straight into a well
planned back-stop ambush established by Arminius at the point where the northern
edge of the nearby Berglands fell steeply down into a narrow gap between the
hilly ground, and the boggy moorlands beyond. lt was a perfect pincer movement,
and with the exception of a few handfuls of fleeing Legionaries, all were slain.
From a set position of earth ramparts disguised as grass banks, the tribesmen
were able to pick off the Roman force by sections as they squeezed into the
narrow gap, harried from the rear and left flank and with no room to fight in
their normal organised formations.Very few escaped through the ambush pipe to
the moors beyond.
The entire Roman force, possibly some 20,000 men in all, was thus destroyed.
In the summer of AD 15, some 6 years later, Augustus' grandnephew Germanicus, now in command on the Rhine, took his troops to visit the site to pay his respects to the fallen and give them proper funeral rites.Tacitus described the scene. 'It lived up to its horrible associations.Varus's extensive first camp, with its broad extent and headquarters marked out, testified to the whole army's labours. Then a halfruined breastwork and shallow ditch showed where the last pathetic remnant had gathered. On the open ground were whitening bones, scattered where men had fled, heaped up where they had stood and fought back. Fragments of spears and of horses' limbs lay there - also human heads, fastened to tree-trunks. In groves nearby were the outlandish altars at which the Germans had sacrificed the Roman officers.
'Survivors of the catastrophe, who had escaped from the battle or from captivity afterwards, pointed out where the generals had fallen, and where the Eagles had been captured. They showed whereVarus received his first wound, and where he died by his own unhappy hand. And they told of the platform from which Arminius had spoken, and of his arrogant insults to the Eagles and standards, and of the gibbets and pits for the prisoners.'
for the HISTORY buff ... I recommend to open the dictionary below in a seperate window and the to look at Roman tools and "utensils" for living .
translating the item will help you to discover its function / utilisation
Kalkriese - der Ort der Varusschlacht
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German <-> English DictionaryA simple dictionary based on a wordlist of about 140,000 entries |
Der
römische Legionär zur Zeit der Varusschlacht
Die
römische Armee
Angriffswaffen
Das
Steilfeuergeschütz
Römische
Fuhrwerke
Straßen
Die
Hebemaschine
Die
römische Erntemaschine
Das
römische Feuerzeug
Die
römische Kochkunst - Kochrezepte
Römische
Medizin - Ärzte
Die
römische Geschichtsschreibung
Römische
Kaiser - Regierungszeiten - Kurzbiografien
Von
Caesar zu Augustus
Die
Regierung des Augustus
Gladiatorenkämpfe
Die
Römer und der Karneval
Römische
Mode (-exzentrik) und Kosmetik in antiken Texten
Schreibtäfelchen/Schreibgriffel
Handmühle
Wasserleitungen
Währungseinheiten,
Maße und Gewichte
historical background
ROMAN EMPIRE: Rise and Fall
click below:
7 parts of Rise & Fall of the Roman Empire
<<<< Roma Eterna >>>>
| task
1:
write the text on the Ancient Forum from the link below
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ANCIENT ROMAN FORUM
task 2: below take a look at the remains left from around 1900 today !!! much of it is rebuild and soon you will be able to go and visit the completed restorations: The Roman Forum today
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task 3
write a significant sentence to identify the functionality of each building or site below
In this field trip you will be able to click on various examples of Roman Art and Architecture. |
ARCHITECTURE ~ SACRED SITES Colosseum, Circus Maximus, Hippodrome BUILDINGS CATACOMBS ~ BURIALS FORUM HOMES PANTHEON PYRAMIDS THEATERS ~ AMPHITHEATERS
BYZANTINE EMPIRE CARTHAGE ETRUSCANS
ROME CHRONOLOGY ~ TIMELINES ROMAN EMPIRE The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire KINGS
CURRENT DISCOVERIES FROM ANCIENT ROME
CALENDAR CLOTHING ~ HAIR STYLES COINS ~ NUMISMATICS CULTURE EDUCATION FAMILY ~ MARRIAGE FOOD LANGUAGE ~ ALPHABET ~ WRITING LAW & GOVERNMENT POLITICS RECREATION ~ SPORTS & GAMES Gladiators SLAVERY
JULIUS CAESAR EMPORERS ~ Agustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Nerva, Trajan EMPRESSES ~ WOMEN
LITERATURE ~ LIBRARIES CICERO HORACE JOSEPHUS POETS OVID PLUTARCH VIRGIL
RELIGION ~ POPES CHRISTIANITY MITHRAISM
PHILOSOPHY MARCUS AURELIUS PLINY THE ELDER PLOTINUS ROMAN VIRTUES SENECA
MEDICINE SCIENCE ~ TECHNOLOGY VOLCANOES Complete List & Links
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus is regarded as one of the greatest emperors in Roman history; he is numbered among the "Five Good Emperors." Marcus ruled the vast empire from 161 to 180 AD. A highly intelligent man, he stands out as one of the greatest intellectual rulers in Western Civilization. Although a great military leader, Marcus was impressed with a firm desire for peace that manifested itself in his philosophical writings.
Marcus was born in Rome on April 26, 121 and raised in a wealthy and politically prominent family. He was noticed by the Emperor Hadrian while he was still a child and was consequently given special educational privileges. Marcus was enrolled in the Equestrians at the age of six and the next year he was given special permission to attend the priestly college of the Salii in Rome. It was here that Marcus was taught by the greatest thinkers of the day, representing a variety of cultures.
Marcus continued to receive help from emperors, but later assistance would come in the form of his growth in political power. He was adopted by Antoninus Pius, the chosen successor of the throne and was given political positions under him. To further strengthen Marcus's appointment as the successor of Pius, Marcus married his daughter, Annia Galaria Faustina. Marcus would go on to play a major role in government under his father-in-law until Pius died.
Marcus was crowned emperor on March 7, 161 and so began a reign characterized by war, disaster, and intellectual thought. There were three great external conflicts which mark his reign, and Marcus dealt with all of them effectively. He won a victory for the empire in 163 against the Parthians when they had invaded Armenia, he coped with a great plague that swept the whole empire, and he successfully pushed barbarians off Roman soil in the Marcomannic Wars. Internal problems came in the form of financial weakness due to the extensive military campaigning being forced upon the empire and he dealt with these problems through extensive government reforms. Marcus was not free from crisis in his personal life either: his wife was notorious for sleeping around and his heir lacked all of the leadership skills for which Marcus was famous.
Marcus found the strength to deal with the many problems he faced through Stoic philosophy. These beliefs were expressed in his Meditations, where he exhibits the tensions he felt between his position as emperor and his prevailing feeling of inadequacy. The 12 books that make up the set are the most introspective of any ancient philosophical writing--so much so, that they may be called a diary. Marcus was consoled in his writings by the fact that life is short and that the spirit, which is the only thing valuable about a person, is refused into the universe at death.
Notes:
Image of bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius taken from: Birley, Anthony, Marcus Aurelius: A Biography (New Haven; Yale University Press, 1987), Figure 23.
Bibliography:
Birley, Anthony, Marcus Aurelius: A Biography (New Haven; Yale University Press, 1987).
Bunson, Matthew, Encyclopedia of The Roman Empire. 1st ed.; Vol. 1. (New York; Facts on File, 1994).
>here is>>
a list of latin principal parts
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THE WAYS OF WOMEN
IN the days of Saturn,2 I believe, Chastity still lingered on the earth, and was to be seen for a time--days when men were poorly housed in chilly caves, which under one common shelter enclosed hearth and household gods, herds and their owners; when the hill-bred wife spread her silvan bed with leaves and straw and the skins of her neighbours the wild beasts
2 i.e. in the golden days of innocence.
--a wife not like thee, O Cynthia,1 nor to thee, Lesbia,2 whose bright eyes were clouded by a sparrow's death, but one whose breasts gave suck to lusty babes, often more unkempt herself than her acorn-belching husband. For in those days, when the world was young and the skies were new, men born of the riven oak,3 or formed of dust, lived differently from now, and had no parents of their own. Under Jupiter, perchance, some few traces of ancient modesty may have survived; but that was before he had grown his beard, before the Greeks had learned to swear by someone else's head, when men feared not thieves for their cabbages or fruits, and lived with unwalled gardens. After that Astraea 4 withdrew by degrees to heaven, with Chastity as her comrade, the two sisters taking flight together.
To set your neighbour's bed a-shaking, Postumus, and to flout the Genius of the sacred couch,5 is now an ancient and long-established practice. All other sins came later, the products of the age of Iron; but it was the silver age that saw the first adulterers. Nevertheless, in these days of ours, you are preparing for a covenant, a marriage-contract and a betrothal; you are by now getting your hair combed by a master barber; you have also perhaps given a pledge to her finger. What! Postumus, are you, you who once had your wits, taking to yourself a wife? Tell me what Tisiphone, what snakes are driving you mad? Can you submit to a she-tyrant when there is so much rope to be had, so many dizzy heights of windows standing open, and when
1 The Cynthia of Propertius.
2 The Lesbia of Catullus.
3 There was a legend that men had been born from oak-trees.
4 Astraea, daughter of Zeus and Themis, was the last mortal to leave the earth when the Golden Age came to an end; she was placed among the stars as Virgo.
5 The fulcrum was the head of the couch, often ornamented with the figure of the Genius in bronze.the Aemilian bridge offers itself to your hand? Or if none of all these modes of exit hit your fancy, how much better to take some boy-bedfellow, who would never wrangle with you o' nights, never ask presents of you when in bed, and never complain that you took your ease and were indifferent to his solicitations!
Love in the Ancient World
THE
REPUBLICAN PARADIGM:
HEROINES OF EARLY ROME
http://dominae.fws1.com/world_within/Index.html
recall present endings by clicking below>>>:#1
!!! write the follwing notes: !!!!!!!! of #3
1. Remove the -ī from the third principal part.
2. Add the appropriate ending.
Step 1: Remove the -ī from the end of the third principal part of the verb. |
| Four Principal Parts | Perfect Active Stem | |
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1. The sign of the Present Perfect Active is the special personal ending that must be one of the following:
-ī, -istī, -it, -imus, istis, -źrunt
amāvī |
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monuī |
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didicī |
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What are principal parts of VERBS?
>>>in Latin !
AND ...below another list:
this time organized into the 4 major conjugations:
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
first conjugation
habito habitare habitavi habitatus live
clamo clamare clamavi clamatus shout
intro intrare intravi intratus enter
porto portare portavi portatus carry
supplico supplicare supplicavi supplicatus pray to
amo amare amavi amatus love
explico explicare explicavi explicatus explain
servo servare servavi servatus keep, save
monstro monstrare monstravi monsratus show
colloco collocare collocavi collocatus place
rogo rogare rogavi rogatus ask
impero imperare imperavi imperatus order
appropinquo appropinquare appropinguavi appropinquatus
approach
curo curare curavi curatus care, look after
cogito cogitare cogitavi cogitatus think
ignoro ignorare ignoravi ignoratus not know
sollicito sollicitare sollicitavi sollicitatus worry
saluto salutare salutavi salutatus greet, welcome
celo celare celavi celatus hide
obsecro obsecrare obsecravi obsecratus beseech
pulso pulsare pulsavi pulsatus pound, beat
verbero verberare verberavi verberatus strike, flog
vexo vexare vexavi vexatus shake, annoy
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irregulars of first conjugation
do dare dedi datus give
sto stare stetti status stand
adsto adstare adstetti adstatus stand about
lavo lavare lavi lavatus bathe
SECOND CONJUGATION VERBS: Note that the -e in the second principal part is long for all these verbs.
habeo habere habui habitus have
appareo apparere apparui apparitus appear
moneo monere monui monitus warn
taceo tacere tacui tacitus be silent
stupeo stupere stupui ________ be amazed
valeo valere valui valiturus be well
pateo patere patui _________ lie exposed
jaceo iacere iacui _________ lie
timeo timere timui _________ fear
teneo tenere tenui tentus hold, keep
video videre vidi visus see
moveo movere movi motus move
maneo manere mansi mansus remain
iubeo iubere iussi iussus order
irrideo irridere irrisi irrisus mock, laugh at
possideo possidere possedi possessus occupy
THIRD CONJUGATION VERBS
dico dicere dixi dictus say
duco ducere duxi ductus lead
coquo coquere coxi coctus cook
mitto mittere misi missus send
promitto promittere promisi promissus promise
amitto amittere amisi amissus lose
divido dividere divisi divisus divide
comprehendo comprehendere comprehendi comprehensus seize
transcendo transcendere transcendi transcensus
climb over
colligo colligere collegi collectus collect
consisto consistere constiti________ stand around
expello expellere expuli expulsus drive out
impono imponere imposui impositus put upon
posco poscere poposci _________ request,
demand
THIRD- IO CONJUGATION VERBS
facio facere feci factus do, make
decipio decipere decepi deceptus decieve
fugio fugere fugi fugiturus flee
respicio respicere respexi respectus look back
FOURTH CONJUGATION VERBS
audio audire audivI auditus hear
venio venire veni venturus come
invenio invenire inveni inventurus find
scio scire scivi scitus know
nescio nescire nescivi nescitus not know
dormio dormire dormivi dormitus sleep
IRREGULAR VERBS
sum esse fui futurus be
adsum adesse adfui adfuturus be present
absum abesse afui afuturus be absent
possum posse potui _________ be able
eo ire ii iturus go
abeo abire abii abiturus go away
adeo adire adii aditurus approach
exeo exire exii exiturus go out
redeo redire redii rediturus return
ineo inire inii initurus enter
fero ferre tuli latus carry, bring
aufero auferre atuli alatus take away
volo velle volui _______ wish
optional :
visit the following site for enjoyment and education
Inflected
Latin
Tables with all endings for verbs, adverbs, adjectives, nouns, and pronouns
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t
Ablative case or Accusative case
click below, watch carefully and see for yourself :
objectives #2
The Labors of Heracles from Greek mythology.
JULIUS CAESAR:
THE LAST
DICTATOR
100 - 44 B.C.
veni, vidi ,vici = I came, I saw, I conquered
historical background:
task # 1 >>>>> click below
>>>>>>read "Gaul to Rubicon"
>>>>>>take notes on "key-words" & "key-events"
regarding the Roman influx into Rhine river region
go to : "Gaul to Rubicon" after you click on the index - link below:
Emperor Augustus
(63 BCE - CE 14)
task # 2
a) write key-words and key-events only!
b) hand in for further discussion in class
Who Am I?
objective : # 3
task: students are becoming familiar with the preparations, location, timings and the actual ritual:
click >>>>>>A Winter Solstice Ritual
objective #4 (optional)
Before today's Gegorian calendar was adopted, the older Julian calendar was used. It was admirably close to the actual length of the year, as it turns out, but the Julian calendar was not so perfect that it didn't slowly shift off track over the following centuries. But, hundreds of years later, monks were the only ones with any free time for scholarly pursuits -- and they were discouraged from thinking about the matter of "secular time" for any reason beyond figuring out when to observe Easter. In the Middle Ages, the study of the measure of time was first viewed as prying too deeply into God's own affairs -- and later thought of as a lowly, mechanical study, unworthy of serious contemplation.
As a result, it wasn't until 1582, by which time Caesar's calendar had drifted a full 10 days off course, that Pope Gregory finally reformed the Julian calendar. Ironically, by the time the Catholic church buckled under the weight of the scientific reasoning that pointed out the error, it had lost much of its power to implement the fix. Protestant tract writers responded to Gregory's calendar by calling him the "Roman Antichrist" and claiming that its real purpose was to keep true Christians from worshiping on the correct days. The "new" calendar, as we know it today, was not adopted uniformly across Europe until well into the 18th century.
+++++++bonus+++++
Nine Monsters Rated: Which is Scariest?
It means that the grammatical relations between the words are shown by changes in their forms.
Most often the inflectional changes take place in the termination of the word:
please copy the text of the following grey highlighted area in your Grammar section
The Noun
Recognize a noun when you see one.
George! Jupiter! Ice cream! Courage! Books! Bottles! Godzilla! All of these words are nouns, words that identify the whos, wheres, and whats in language. Nouns name people, places, and things. Read the sentence that follows:George and Godzilla walked to Papa John's to order a large pepperoni pizza.George is a person. Papa John's is a place. Pizza is a thing. Godzilla likes to think he's a person, is as big as a place, but qualifies as another thing.
Understand the functions that nouns provide in sentences.
Nouns can function as subjects, objects, and complements. Check out these examples:
Godzilla ordered a large pepperoni pizza and ate the pie in a single bite.
Godzilla = the subject for the verbs ordered and ate.
George offered Godzilla a ten-dollar loan to buy a second pizza.
Godzilla = the indirect object of offered; loan = the direct object of offered.
While eating a piece of pizza, George dripped tomato sauce onto his shirt.
Shirt = the object of the preposition onto.
In Godzilla's opinion, George is a big slob.
Slob = subject complement of the linking verb is.
Related Terms
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abstract noun | collective noun | common noun | concrete noun | count noun | direct object | indirect object | linking verb | noncount noun | object of the preposition | proper noun | subject | subject complement | verb |
third objective,optional:
many of you might still see a need to revise and reinforce the concept of the noun functioning as
'subject or nominative case'
Nr.4 task:
the following is an indepth overview on the 'subject or nominative'
The Subject
Know how to identify a subject.
In a sentence, every verb must have a subject. If the verb expresses action--like sneeze, jump, bark, or study--the subject is who or what does the verb. Take a look at the examples below:
During his biology lab, Tommy danced on the table.
Danced is an action verb. Tommy is who did the dancing. Look at the next example:
The speeding Toyota crashed into a telephone pole.
Crashed is the action verb. The Toyota is what did the crashing.
Not all verbs are action verbs. Some verbs are linking. These are verbs like am, is, are, was, were, seem, and become, among others. Linking verbs connect the subject to something that is said about the subject. Take a look at this example:
Ron's bathroom is a disaster.
Bathroom is the subject. Is connects the subject to something that is said about it, that the bathroom is a disaster. Try another example:
The bathroom tiles are fuzzy with mold.
The word tiles is the subject. Are connects tiles to something said about them, that they are fuzzy with mold.
Generally, but not always, the subject of a linking verb will come before the linking verb.
Know the difference between a complete subject and a simple subject.
The complete subject is the who or what that is doing the verb plus all of the modifiers (descriptive words) that go with it. Read the sentence below:
The huge, hairy, hungry, green Martian grabbed a student from the back row.
Who did the grabbing? The Martian, of course. But this Martian wasn't petite, bald, satisfied and blue. No, this one was huge, hairy, hungry, and green. The complete subject, then, is the huge, hairy, hungry, green Martian.
The simple subject, on the other hand, is the who or what that is doing the verb without any of the provided description. Take a look at this example:
The bright copper coin sparkled on the sidewalk.
What did the sparkling? Obviously, the bright copper coin. The, bright and copper, however, are just description that distinguishes this coin from one that is, let's say, tarnished and silver. The simple subject is only the word coin.
Remember that the subject is never part of a prepositional phrase.
The subject of a verb will never be part of a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition (in, on, at, between, among, etc.) and ends with a noun. Look at these examples of prepositional phrases:
in the dirty bathtub
on the bumpy road
at home
between good friends
among the empty pizza boxes
Sometimes a prepositional phrase appears to be either the subject itself or part of the subject. Read the example that follows:
Neither of these boys wants to try a piece of pineapple pizza.
In this sentence, the boys seem to be the ones who do not want to try the pizza, but because they are part of a prepositional phrase, of these boys, they are not the subject. Neither is the actual subject. Take a look at another example:
My dog, along with her seven puppies, has chewed all of the stuffing out of my sofa cushions.
Here, both my dog and her seven puppies are chewing on the sofa, but because the puppies are part of the prepositional phrase along with her seven puppies, the only word that counts as the subject is dog.
Remember this additional point:
Generally, but not always, the subject comes before the verb, as in all of the examples above. There are, however, exceptions, like this one:
In a small house adjacent to my backyard lives a family with ten noisy children.
Lives is the action verb in this sentence, but it is not the house or the backyard that is doing the living. Instead, it is the family with ten noisy children. Family, then, is the subject of this sentence, even though it comes after the verb. Take a look at another example:
Around the peach trees are several buzzing bumblebees.
Are is the linking verb is this sentence. The words peach trees, however, are not the subject because they are within the prepositional phrase around the peach trees. The subject in this sentence, bumblebees, follows the verb rather than coming before it.
Greek Gods and Goddesses
The Olympian Gods: Images and Texts
Greek Mythology QuizPandora in Art
Latin poetry: Pyrrha and Deucalion
| Greek
Heroes and Heroines
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The division of Greek mythical creatures into two main categories is purely
for organization purposes. These categories - "hybrids" and
"monsters" - serve to distinguish between different types of mythical
beings.
Hybrids | a hybrid
is a composite creature - examples are the centaur (combination of human and
horse), and the harpy (human and vulture); these mythical beings populated the
imaginations, literature, and art of the ancient Greeks
Monsters | the monsters section mainly features beings that are
singular entities - in other words, there is but one Minotaur, Medusa, or
Pegasus in Greek mythology; monsters were generally either friends or foes to
various Greek heroes
Third
Declension Endings:
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Fourth
Declension Endings:
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Forming the Perfect Tenses, Active Voice |
Comparison of Adjectives: Regular Comparative and Superlative Forms |
work in your culture section
task:
please take down the instructions for the topics and subtitles
you are to explore in the site of the Roman Forum
( listed below)
1. Family life: >>> slaves & >>>pater familias
2.Entertainment: >>>games
3.Education: >>>primary school / >>writing materials/ >>>grammaticus
